Table 3 Techniques are adopted to evaluate the dispersion quality of CNMs in suspension or cement matrix

UV-vis spectroscopy

Suspension

Employing the Beer-Lambert Law to calculate the content of CNMs according to the absorbance.

[4, 82, 99]

Laser particle size

Smaller particle size indicates better dispersion

[9, 84]

Dynamic light scattering

[8, 119]

Zeta potential

Higher zeta potential value (absolute value) means better dispersion

[82, 109]

Optical microscope

Suspension/cement matrix

Assessment of dispersion based on directly observed dimensions

[82, 85]

SEM

[21, 28, 120, 121]

Transmission electron microscope

[22, 32, 87]

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

[22, 24, 86, 105, 107, 119]

Raman spectrum

[86, 120]